The unique character of ancient Greek civilization can be attributed to several factors: synthesis, adaptation and constant improvement are recurrent themes in ancient Greek society. It was a fluid, constantly evolving yet relatively stable world.

The Greeks created a distinctive culture which subsequent civilizations admired and copied: one based on logic, reason, and the exaltation of the human spirit.

Plato defined wisdom as the greatest human virtue, and this view was shared by the majority of citizens in Greece.

One of the most unique aspects of Greek civilization was the development of the Polis – a revolutionary concept focused on the city-state and the mandatory role played by citizens in every aspect of daily life inside the city. Political, religious, economic and cultural life centered on the Polis. Citizenship was highly valued by the few who had it, and they were obligated to participate in political affairs. There were 81 total Polis; each with a different set of laws.

Aristotle believed that the city was the heart of the Polis and the Agora [the main square] was the heart of the city. The primary function of the Polis was ultimately to encourage “virtue” among the citizens in a way that would make the most people happy. Aristotle articulated the view that it was impossible to obtain happiness without virtue.

Plutarch affirmed that life in ancient Greece was highly competitive and this helped to create an environment that inspired individualism and personal achievements in the arts, philosophy, and in all forms of literature.

The words of Socrates forced other philosophers to confront the question of their role in a society defined by democratic institutions and norms. For Plato and Aristotle, the study of debased human affairs (i.e., politics) was far less admirable than the broader study of Truth about nature and the divine realms.

The invention of “political philosophy” can be seen as a deliberate challenge to existing paradigms. Thucydides’ exploration of the nature of politics through The History of the Peloponnesian Wars was in many ways more instructive than Plato’s philosophical diatribes.

Most Greek cities were populated by peasant tradesmen, farmers, and their families. The adult males formed the body of the state. They were mandated to vote in elections, participate in trials in the courts and even hold public office. Qualified citizens served in the army – mainly in the ‘Hoplite Phalanx.’ Men who completed military service were able to demand increased civil rights which in turn spurred the evolution of city-states like Athens toward direct democracy.

Slaves and women were still excluded from the process, however.

Above these groups stood a small number of wealthier families, the “old money” who owned more property. These were the aristocrats. They could afford to keep horses, so they owned more land, and thus had a disproportionate influence on affairs of state. They formed ‘aristocratic councils’ giving them undue power over public policy. This situation exposed one of the weaknesses in the system.

Yet, in those city-states which were true democracies, the majority held power through the General Assembly. Athenian society evolved from a monarchy into an oligarchy and then progressed toward direct democracy during the so-called ‘Golden Age.’ The creation of the Polis was the most enduring and unique feature passed down through the ages from classical Greek society.

The word ‘democracy’ is a Greek invention combining demos = people – and kratos = power; literally “power of the people.” Athens is referred to by scholars as the ‘cradle of democracy.’

In contrast, Sparta – Greece’s main rivals – devolved into a culturally backward society dominated by a military oligarchy – as articulated by Xenophon in the Constitution of the Lacedaimonians.

America 2025: we are Sparta!

Ancient Greece is renowned for its unique form of government, its naturalistic art, its revolutionary architecture and philosophy and the veneration of sport: all of which became the foundations of western civilization. Greek ideas about democracy were adopted by many cultures including the Romans, who helped spread Greek civilization throughout the world.

[Edited repost from 2015]